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whitespace and uniformity cleanups

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The file looked too messy with many less-than-4-line comments block-commented. Also made some uniformity formatting cleanups (such as numbers of blank lines). Maybe most importantly, shortened or reformatted long lines that were breaking in the final html page making things look too messy as well.
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@ -7,10 +7,10 @@ contributors:
---
Haxe is a web-oriented language that provides platform support for C++, C#,
Swf/ActionScript, Javascript, Java, and Neko byte code (also written by the
Haxe author). Note that this guide is for Haxe version 3. Some of the guide
may be applicable to older versions, but it is recommended to use other
references.
Swf/ActionScript, Javascript, Java, PHP, Python, Lua, Hashlink and Neko byte code
(the latter two also written by the Haxe author). Note that this guide is for
Haxe version 3. Some of the guide may be applicable to older versions, but it is
recommended to use other references.
```csharp
/*
@ -26,16 +26,14 @@ references.
Multiline comments are also used to generate javadoc-style documentation for
haxedoc. They will be used for haxedoc if they immediately precede a class,
class function, or class variable.
*/
// Double slashes like this will give a single-line comment
// Double slashes like this will give a single-line comment.
/*
This is your first actual haxe code coming up, it's declaring an empty
package. A package isn't necessary, but it's useful if you want to create a
namespace for your code (e.g. org.yourapp.ClassName).
package. A package isn't necessary, but it's useful if you want to create
a namespace for your code (e.g. org.yourapp.ClassName).
Omitting package declaration is the same as declaring an empty package.
*/
@ -47,8 +45,9 @@ package; // empty package, no namespace.
must be lower case while module names are capitalized. A module contain one
or more types whose names are also capitalized.
E.g, the class "org.yourapp.Foo" should have the folder structure org/module/Foo.hx,
as accessible from the compiler's working directory or class path.
E.g, the class "org.yourapp.Foo" should have the folder structure
org/module/Foo.hx, as accessible from the compiler's working directory or
class path.
If you import code from other files, it must be declared before the rest of
the code. Haxe provides a lot of common default classes to get you started:
@ -64,34 +63,27 @@ import Lambda.array;
// you can also use "*" to import all static fields
import Math.*;
/*
You can also import classes in a special way, enabling them to extend the
functionality of other classes like a "mixin". More on 'using' later.
*/
// You can also import classes in a special way, enabling them to extend the
// functionality of other classes like a "mixin". More on 'using' later.
using StringTools;
/*
Typedefs are like variables... for types. They must be declared before any
code. More on this later.
*/
// Typedefs are like variables... for types. They must be declared before any
// code. More on this later.
typedef FooString = String;
// Typedefs can also reference "structural" types, more on that later as well.
typedef FooObject = { foo: String };
/*
Here's the class definition. It's the main class for the file, since it has
the same name (LearnHaxe3).
*/
class LearnHaxe3{
// Here's the class definition. It's the main class for the file, since it has
// the same name (LearnHaxe3).
class LearnHaxe3 {
/*
If you want certain code to run automatically, you need to put it in
a static main function, and specify the class in the compiler arguments.
In this case, we've specified the "LearnHaxe3" class in the compiler
arguments above.
*/
static function main(){
static function main() {
/*
Trace is the default method of printing haxe expressions to the
screen. Different targets will have different methods of
@ -103,17 +95,13 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
*/
trace("Hello World, with trace()!");
/*
Trace can handle any type of value or object. It will try to print
a representation of the expression as best it can. You can also
concatenate strings with the "+" operator:
*/
// Trace can handle any type of value or object. It will try to print
// a representation of the expression as best it can. You can also
// concatenate strings with the "+" operator:
trace( " Integer: " + 10 + " Float: " + 3.14 + " Boolean: " + true);
/*
In Haxe, it's required to separate expressions in the same block with
semicolons. But, you can put two expressions on one line:
*/
// In Haxe, it's required to separate expressions in the same block with
// semicolons. But, you can put two expressions on one line:
trace('two expressions..'); trace('one line');
@ -122,14 +110,11 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
trace("***Types & Variables***");
/*
You can save values and references to data structures using the
"var" keyword:
*/
// You can save values and references to data structures using the
// "var" keyword:
var an_integer:Int = 1;
trace(an_integer + " is the value for an_integer");
/*
Haxe is statically typed, so "an_integer" is declared to have an
"Int" type, and the rest of the expression assigns the value "1" to
@ -150,46 +135,36 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
Haxe uses platform precision for Int and Float sizes. It also
uses the platform behavior for overflow.
(Other numeric types and behavior are possible using special
libraries)
*/
/*
libraries.)
In addition to simple values like Integers, Floats, and Booleans,
Haxe provides standard library implementations for common data
structures like strings, arrays, lists, and maps:
*/
var a_string = "some" + 'string'; // strings can have double or single quotes
// Strings can have double or single quotes.
var a_string = "some" + 'string';
trace(a_string + " is the value for a_string");
/*
Strings can be "interpolated" by inserting variables into specific
positions. The string must be single quoted, and the variable must
be preceded with "$". Expressions can be enclosed in ${...}.
*/
// Strings can be "interpolated" by inserting variables into specific
// positions. The string must be single quoted, and the variable must
// be preceded with "$". Expressions can be enclosed in ${...}.
var x = 1;
var an_interpolated_string = 'the value of x is $x';
var another_interpolated_string = 'the value of x + 1 is ${x + 1}';
/*
Strings are immutable, instance methods will return a copy of
parts or all of the string.
(See also the StringBuf class).
*/
// Strings are immutable, instance methods will return a copy of
// parts or all of the string. (See also the StringBuf class).
var a_sub_string = a_string.substr(0,4);
trace(a_sub_string + " is the value for a_sub_string");
/*
Regexes are also supported, but there's not enough space to go into
much detail.
*/
// Regexes are also supported, but there's not enough space here to go
// into much detail.
var re = ~/foobar/;
trace(re.match('foo') + " is the value for (~/foobar/.match('foo')))");
/*
Arrays are zero-indexed, dynamic, and mutable. Missing values are
defined as null.
*/
// Arrays are zero-indexed, dynamic, and mutable. Missing values are
// defined as null.
var a = new Array<String>(); // an array that contains Strings
a[0] = 'foo';
trace(a.length + " is the value for a.length");
@ -197,20 +172,17 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
trace(a.length + " is the value for a.length (after modification)");
trace(a[3] + " is the value for a[3]"); //null
/*
Arrays are *generic*, so you can indicate which values they contain
with a type parameter:
*/
// Arrays are *generic*, so you can indicate which values they contain
// with a type parameter:
var a2 = new Array<Int>(); // an array of Ints
var a3 = new Array<Array<String>>(); // an Array of Arrays (of Strings).
/*
Maps are simple key/value data structures. The key and the value
can be of any type.
*/
var m = new Map<String, Int>(); // The keys are strings, the values are Ints.
// Maps are simple key/value data structures. The key and the value
// can be of any type.
// Here, the keys are strings, and the values are Ints:
var m = new Map<String, Int>();
m.set('foo', 4);
// You can also use array notation;
// You can also use array notation:
m['bar'] = 5;
trace(m.exists('bar') + " is the value for m.exists('bar')");
trace(m.get('bar') + " is the value for m.get('bar')");
@ -219,19 +191,15 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
var m2 = ['foo' => 4, 'baz' => 6]; // Alternative map syntax
trace(m2 + " is the value for m2");
/*
Remember, you can use type inference. The Haxe compiler will
decide the type of the variable the first time you pass an
argument that sets a type parameter.
*/
// Remember, you can use type inference. The Haxe compiler will
// decide the type of the variable the first time you pass an
// argument that sets a type parameter.
var m3 = new Map();
m3.set(6, 'baz'); // m3 is now a Map<Int,String>
trace(m3 + " is the value for m3");
/*
Haxe has some more common datastructures in the haxe.ds module, such as
List, Stack, and BalancedTree
*/
// Haxe has some more common datastructures in the haxe.ds module, such
// as List, Stack, and BalancedTree.
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
@ -243,10 +211,10 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
trace((4 + 3) + " is the value for (4 + 3)");
trace((5 - 1) + " is the value for (5 - 1)");
trace((2 * 4) + " is the value for (2 * 4)");
trace((8 / 3) + " is the value for (8 / 3) (division always produces Floats)");
// Division always produces Floats.
trace((8 / 3) + " is the value for (8 / 3) (a Float)");
trace((12 % 4) + " is the value for (12 % 4)");
//basic comparison
trace((3 == 2) + " is the value for 3 == 2");
trace((3 != 2) + " is the value for 3 != 2");
@ -257,6 +225,7 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
// standard bitwise operators
/*
~ Unary bitwise complement
<< Signed left shift
>> Signed right shift
@ -264,15 +233,17 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
& Bitwise AND
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
| Bitwise inclusive OR
*/
//increments
// increments
var i = 0;
trace("Increments and decrements");
trace(i++); //i = 1. Post-Incrementation
trace(++i); //i = 2. Pre-Incrementation
trace(i--); //i = 1. Post-Decrementation
trace(--i); //i = 0. Pre-Decrementation
trace(i++); // i = 1. Post-Increment
trace(++i); // i = 2. Pre-Increment
trace(i--); // i = 1. Post-Decrement
trace(--i); // i = 0. Pre-Decrement
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Control Structures
@ -292,10 +263,8 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
// there is also a "ternary" if:
(j == 10) ? trace("equals 10") : trace("not equals 10");
/*
Finally, there is another form of control structures that operates
at compile time: conditional compilation.
*/
// Finally, there is another form of control structure that operates
// at compile time: conditional compilation.
#if neko
trace('hello from neko');
#elseif js
@ -303,43 +272,40 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
#else
trace('hello from another platform!');
#end
/*
The compiled code will change depending on the platform target.
Since we're compiling for neko (-x or -neko), we only get the neko
greeting.
*/
// The compiled code will change depending on the platform target.
// Since we're compiling for neko (-x or -neko), we only get the neko
// greeting.
trace("Looping and Iteration");
// while loop
var k = 0;
while(k < 100){
while (k < 100){
// trace(counter); // will print out numbers 0-99
k++;
}
// do-while loop
var l = 0;
do{
do {
trace("do statement always runs at least once");
} while (l > 0);
// for loop
/*
There is no c-style for loop in Haxe, because they are prone
to error, and not necessary. Instead, Haxe has a much simpler
and safer version that uses Iterators (more on those later).
*/
// There is no c-style for loop in Haxe, because they are prone
// to error, and not necessary. Instead, Haxe has a much simpler
// and safer version that uses Iterators (more on those later).
var m = [1,2,3];
for (val in m){
for (val in m) {
trace(val + " is the value for val in the m array");
}
// Note that you can iterate on an index using a range
// (more on ranges later as well)
var n = ['foo', 'bar', 'baz'];
for (val in 0...n.length){
for (val in 0...n.length) {
trace(val + " is the value for val (an index for n)");
}
@ -354,8 +320,11 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
var modified_n = [for (val in n) val += '!'];
trace(modified_n + " is the value for modified_n");
var filtered_and_modified_n = [for (val in n) if (val != "foo") val += "!"];
trace(filtered_and_modified_n + " is the value for filtered_and_modified_n");
var filtered_and_modified_n
= [for (val in n) if (val != "foo") val += "!"];
trace(filtered_and_modified_n
+ " is the value for filtered_and_modified_n");
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Switch Statements (Value Type)
@ -375,24 +344,23 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
case "rex" : favorite_thing = "shoe";
case "spot" : favorite_thing = "tennis ball";
default : favorite_thing = "some unknown treat";
// case _ : favorite_thing = "some unknown treat"; // same as default
// same as default:
// case _ : favorite_thing = "some unknown treat";
}
// The "_" case above is a "wildcard" value
// that will match anything.
// The "_" case above is a "wildcard" value that will match anything.
trace("My dog's name is " + my_dog_name
+ ", and his favorite thing is a: "
+ favorite_thing);
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Expression Statements
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
trace("***EXPRESSION STATEMENTS***");
/*
Haxe control statements are very powerful because every statement
is also an expression, consider:
*/
// Haxe control statements are very powerful because every statement
// is also an expression, consider:
// if statements
var k = if (true) 10 else 20;
@ -410,6 +378,7 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
+ ", and his other favorite thing is a: "
+ other_favorite_thing);
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Converting Value Types
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
@ -434,14 +403,13 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/*
As mentioned before, Haxe is a statically typed language. All in
all, static typing is a wonderful thing. It enables
precise autocompletions, and can be used to thoroughly check the
correctness of a program. Plus, the Haxe compiler is super fast.
*HOWEVER*, there are times when you just wish the compiler would let
something slide, and not throw a type error in a given case.
*HOWEVER*, there are times when you just wish the compiler would
let something slide, and not throw a type error in a given case.
To do this, Haxe has two separate keywords. The first is the
"Dynamic" type:
@ -456,11 +424,10 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
The other more extreme option is the "untyped" keyword:
*/
untyped {
var x:Int = 'foo'; // this can't be right!
var y:String = 4; // madness!
}
untyped {
var x:Int = 'foo'; // this can't be right!
var y:String = 4; // madness!
}
/*
The untyped keyword operates on entire *blocks* of code, skipping
@ -474,74 +441,66 @@ class LearnHaxe3{
of the type models work should you resort to "Dynamic" or "untyped".
*/
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Basic Object Oriented Programming
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
trace("***BASIC OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING***");
/*
Create an instance of FooClass. The classes for this are at the
end of the file.
*/
// Create an instance of FooClass. The classes for this are at the
// end of the file.
var foo_instance = new FooClass(3);
// read the public variable normally
trace(foo_instance.public_any + " is the value for foo_instance.public_any");
trace(foo_instance.public_any
+ " is the value for foo_instance.public_any");
// we can read this variable
trace(foo_instance.public_read + " is the value for foo_instance.public_read");
// but not write it
// foo_instance.public_read = 4; // this will throw an error if uncommented:
trace(foo_instance.public_read
+ " is the value for foo_instance.public_read");
// but not write it; this will throw an error if uncommented:
// foo_instance.public_read = 4;
// trace(foo_instance.public_write); // as will this.
// calls the toString method:
// Calls the toString method:
trace(foo_instance + " is the value for foo_instance");
// same thing:
trace(foo_instance.toString() + " is the value for foo_instance.toString()");
trace(foo_instance.toString()
+ " is the value for foo_instance.toString()");
/*
The foo_instance has the "FooClass" type, while acceptBarInstance
has the BarClass type. However, since FooClass extends BarClass, it
is accepted.
*/
// The foo_instance has the "FooClass" type, while acceptBarInstance
// has the BarClass type. However, since FooClass extends BarClass, it
// is accepted.
BarClass.acceptBarInstance(foo_instance);
/*
The classes below have some more advanced examples, the "example()"
method will just run them here.
*/
// The classes below have some more advanced examples, the "example()"
// method will just run them here.
SimpleEnumTest.example();
ComplexEnumTest.example();
TypedefsAndStructuralTypes.example();
UsingExample.example();
}
}
/*
This is the "child class" of the main LearnHaxe3 Class
*/
class FooClass extends BarClass implements BarInterface{
// This is the "child class" of the main LearnHaxe3 Class.
class FooClass extends BarClass implements BarInterface {
public var public_any:Int; // public variables are accessible anywhere
public var public_read (default, null): Int; // enable only public read
public var public_write (null, default): Int; // or only public write
public var property (get, set): Int; // use this style to enable getters/setters
// Use this style to enable getters/setters:
public var property (get, set): Int;
// private variables are not available outside the class.
// see @:allow for ways around this.
var _private:Int; // variables are private if they are not marked public
// a public constructor
public function new(arg:Int){
public function new(arg:Int) {
// call the constructor of the parent object, since we extended BarClass:
super();
this.public_any = 0;
this._private = arg;
}
// getter for _private
@ -555,47 +514,40 @@ class FooClass extends BarClass implements BarInterface{
return val;
}
// special function that is called whenever an instance is cast to a string.
public function toString(){
// Special function that is called whenever an instance is cast to a string.
public function toString() {
return _private + " with toString() method!";
}
// this class needs to have this function defined, since it implements
// the BarInterface interface.
public function baseFunction(x: Int) : String{
public function baseFunction(x: Int) : String {
// convert the int to string automatically
return x + " was passed into baseFunction!";
}
}
/*
A simple class to extend
*/
// A simple class to extend.
class BarClass {
var base_variable:Int;
public function new(){
public function new() {
base_variable = 4;
}
public static function acceptBarInstance(b:BarClass){
}
public static function acceptBarInstance(b:BarClass) {}
}
/*
A simple interface to implement
*/
// A simple interface to implement
interface BarInterface{
public function baseFunction(x:Int):String;
}
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Enums and Switch Statements
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/*
Enums in Haxe are very powerful. In their simplest form, enums
are a type with a limited number of states:
*/
// Enums in Haxe are very powerful. In their simplest form, enums
// are a type with a limited number of states:
enum SimpleEnum {
Foo;
Bar;
@ -603,12 +555,12 @@ enum SimpleEnum {
}
// Here's a class that uses it:
class SimpleEnumTest{
public static function example(){
var e_explicit:SimpleEnum = SimpleEnum.Foo; // you can specify the "full" name
class SimpleEnumTest {
public static function example() {
// You can specify the "full" name,
var e_explicit:SimpleEnum = SimpleEnum.Foo;
var e = Foo; // but inference will work as well.
switch(e){
switch(e) {
case Foo: trace("e was Foo");
case Bar: trace("e was Bar");
case Baz: trace("e was Baz"); // comment this line to throw an error.
@ -621,18 +573,16 @@ class SimpleEnumTest{
You can also specify a default for enum switches as well:
*/
switch(e){
switch(e) {
case Foo: trace("e was Foo again");
default : trace("default works here too");
}
}
}
/*
Enums go much further than simple states, we can also enumerate
*constructors*, but we'll need a more complex enum example
*/
enum ComplexEnum{
// Enums go much further than simple states, we can also enumerate
// *constructors*, but we'll need a more complex enum example
enum ComplexEnum {
IntEnum(i:Int);
MultiEnum(i:Int, j:String, k:Float);
SimpleEnumEnum(s:SimpleEnum);
@ -641,13 +591,11 @@ enum ComplexEnum{
// Note: The enum above can include *other* enums as well, including itself!
// Note: This is what's called *Algebraic data type* in some other languages.
class ComplexEnumTest{
public static function example(){
class ComplexEnumTest {
public static function example() {
var e1:ComplexEnum = IntEnum(4); // specifying the enum parameter
/*
Now we can switch on the enum, as well as extract any parameters
it might of had.
*/
// Now we can switch on the enum, as well as extract any parameters
// it might of had.
switch(e1){
case IntEnum(x) : trace('$x was the parameter passed to e1');
default: trace("Shouldn't be printed");
@ -663,33 +611,27 @@ class ComplexEnumTest{
// enums all the way down
var e3 = ComplexEnumEnum(ComplexEnumEnum(MultiEnum(4, 'hi', 4.3)));
switch(e3){
// You can look for certain nested enums by specifying them explicitly:
// You can look for certain nested enums by specifying them
// explicitly:
case ComplexEnumEnum(ComplexEnumEnum(MultiEnum(i,j,k))) : {
trace('$i, $j, and $k were passed into this nested monster');
}
default: trace("Shouldn't be printed");
}
/*
Check out "generalized algebraic data types" (GADT) for more details
on why these are so great.
*/
// Check out "generalized algebraic data types" (GADT) for more details
// on why these are so great.
}
}
class TypedefsAndStructuralTypes {
public static function example(){
/*
Here we're going to use typedef types, instead of base types.
At the top we've declared the type "FooString" to mean a "String" type.
*/
// Here we're going to use typedef types, instead of base types.
// At the top we've declared the type "FooString" to mean a "String" type.
var t1:FooString = "some string";
/*
We can use typedefs for "structural types" as well. These types are
defined by their field structure, not by class inheritance. Here's
an anonymous object with a String field named "foo":
*/
// We can use typedefs for "structural types" as well. These types are
// defined by their field structure, not by class inheritance. Here's
// an anonymous object with a String field named "foo":
var anon_obj = { foo: 'hi' };
/*
@ -699,8 +641,7 @@ class TypedefsAndStructuralTypes {
that structure, we can use it anywhere that a "FooObject" type is
expected.
*/
var f = function(fo:FooObject){
var f = function(fo:FooObject) {
trace('$fo was passed in to this function');
}
f(anon_obj); // call the FooObject signature function with anon_obj.
@ -728,15 +669,14 @@ class TypedefsAndStructuralTypes {
typedef Surface = java.awt.geom.GeneralPath;
#end
That would give us a single "Surface" type to work with across
all of those platforms.
That would give us a single "Surface" type to work with across
all of those platforms.
*/
}
}
class UsingExample {
public static function example() {
/*
The "using" import keyword is a special type of class import that
alters the behavior of any static methods in the class.