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@ -5,134 +5,194 @@ contributors:
- ["Nemil Dalal", "https://www.nemil.com"]
---
Solidity lets you program on [Ethereum](https://www.ethereum.org/), a blockchain-based virtual machine that allows the creation and computation of smart contracts, without needing centralized or trusted parties.
Solidity lets you program on [Ethereum](https://www.ethereum.org/), a
blockchain-based virtual machine that allows the creation and
computation of smart contracts, without needing centralized or trusted parties.
Solidity is a statically typed, contract programming language that has similarities to Javascript and C. Like an object in object-oriented languages, each contract contains state variables, functions, and common data types. Contract-specific features include modifier (guard) clauses, event notifiers, and custom variables.
Solidity is a statically typed, contract programming language that has
similarities to Javascript and C. Like objects in OOP, each contract contains
state variables, functions, and common data types. Contract-specific features
include modifier (guard) clauses, event notifiers for listeners, and custom
global variables.
As Solidity and Ethereum are under active development, experimental or beta features are explicitly marked, and subject to change. Pull requests welcome.
Some Ethereum contract examples include crowdfunding, voting, and blind auctions.
As Solidity and Ethereum are under active development, experimental or beta
features are explicitly marked, and subject to change. Pull requests welcome.
```javascript
// Let's start with a simple Bank contract, before diving into to the key components of the language
// This bank has three main capabilities:
// - deposit
// - withdrawal
// - check balance
// First, a simple Bank contract
// Allows deposits, withdrawals, and balance checks
// ** START EXAMPLE **
// Start with a Natspec comment (the three slashes) that can be used
// for documentation - and as descriptive data for UI elements
/// @title A simple deposit/withdrawal bank built on Bitcoin
// simple_bank.sol (note .sol extension)
/* **** START EXAMPLE **** */
// All contracts are declared and named (in CamelCase)
// They are similar to 'class' in other languages (and allow capabilities like inheritance)
contract AcmeBank {
// Declare state variables outside a function,
// these are persistent throughout the life of the contract
// Start with Natspec comment (the three slashes)
// used for documentation - and as descriptive data for UI elements/actions
// a dictionary that maps addresses to balances
// the private means that other contracts can't see balances
// but the data is still available to all other parties on the
// blockchain
/// @title SimpleBank
/// @author nemild
/* 'contract' has similarities to 'class' in other languages (class variables,
inheritance, etc.) */
contract SimpleBank { // CamelCase
// Declare state variables outside function, persist through life of contract
// dictionary that maps addresses to balances
mapping (address => uint) private balances;
// the 'public' makes 'owner' externally readable by users or contracts
// (but not writeable)
// "private" means that other contracts can't directly query balances
// but data is still viewable to other parties on blockchain
address public owner;
// 'public' makes externally readable (not writeable) by users or contracts
// Constructor, can receive one or many variables here
// Events - publicize actions to external listeners
event DepositMade(address accountAddress, uint amount);
// Constructor, can receive one or many variables here; only one allowed
function AcmeBank() {
// msg is a default variable that provides both the
// contract messager's address and amount
owner = msg.sender; // msg.sender refers to the address of the contract creator
// msg provides contract messager's address and amount
// msg.sender is contract caller (address of contract creator)
owner = msg.sender;
}
function deposit(uint balance) public returns (uint) {
balances[msg.sender] += msg.value; // no need for "this." or "self." in front of the state variable
/// @notice Deposit ether into bank
/// @return The balance of the user after the deposit is made
function deposit() public returns (uint) {
balances[msg.sender] += msg.value;
// no "this." or "self." required with state variable
// all values initialized to 0 by default
return balances[msg.sender]; // msg.sender refers to the contract caller
}
function withdraw(uint withdrawAmount) public returns (uint remainingBalance) {
if(balances[msg.sender] >= withdrawAmount) {
balances[msg.sender] -= withdrawAmount;
if (!msg.sender.send(withdrawAmount)) {
balances[msg.sender] += withdrawAmount;
}
DepositMade(msg.sender, msg.value); // fire event
return balances[msg.sender];
}
/// @notice Withdraw ether from bank
/// @dev This does not return any excess ether sent to it
/// @param withdrawAmount amount you want to withdraw
/// @return The balance remaining for the user
function withdraw(uint withdrawAmount) public returns (uint remainingBal) {
if(balances[msg.sender] >= withdrawAmount) {
balances[msg.sender] -= withdrawAmount;
if (!msg.sender.send(withdrawAmount)) {
balances[msg.sender] += withdrawAmount; // to be safe
}
return balances[msg.sender];
}
}
// The 'constant' prevents the function from editing state variables
/// @notice Get balance
/// @return The balance of the user
// 'constant' prevents function from editing state variables;
// allows function to run locally/off blockchain
function balance() constant returns (uint) {
return balances[msg.sender];
return balances[msg.sender];
}
// Fallback function
// The fallback function is called if none of the other functions matches the given function identifier.
// Typically, called when invalid data is sent to the contract or ether without data.
// Added so that ether sent to this contract is reverted if the contract fails
// otherwise, the sender loses their money; you should add this in most contracts
function () { throw; }
// Fallback function - Called if other functions don't match call or
// sent ether without data
// Typically, called when invalid data is sent
// Added so ether sent to this contract is reverted if the contract fails
// otherwise, the sender's money is transferred to contract
function () {
throw; // throw reverts state to before call
}
}
// ** END EXAMPLE **
// Now let's go through the basics of Solidity
// Now, the basics of Solidity
// 1. DATA TYPES AND ASSOCIATED METHODS
// uint is the data type typically used for currency (there are no doubles
// or floats) and for dates
// uint used for currency amount (there are no doubles
// or floats) and for dates (in unix time)
uint x;
// with 'constant', the compiler replaces each occurrence with the actual value
// int of 256 bits, cannot be changed after instantiation
int constant a = 8;
// with 'constant', compiler replaces each occurrence with actual value
int256 constant a = 8; // same effect as line above, here the 256 is explicit
uint constant VERSION_ID = 0x123A1; // A hex constant
// For both int and uint, you can explicitly set space in steps of 8
// e.g., int8, int16
// Be careful that you don't overflow, and protect against attacks that do
// For int and uint, can explicitly set space in steps of 8 up to 256
// e.g., int8, int16, int24
uint8 b;
int64 c;
uint248 e;
// No random functions built in, use other contracts for randomness
// Type casting
int x = int(b);
bool b = true; // or do 'var b = true;' for inferred typing
// Addresses - holds 20 byte/160 bit Ethereum addresses to another contract
// ('Contract Account)') or person/external entity ('External Account')
address public owner; // Add 'public' field to indicate publicly/externally accessible, a getter is automatically created, but NOT a setter
// Addresses - holds 20 byte/160 bit Ethereum addresses
// No arithmetic allowed
address public owner;
// All addresses can be sent ether in the following way:
// Types of accounts:
// Contract account: address set on create (func of creator address, num transactions sent)
// External Account: (person/external entity): address created from public key
// Add 'public' field to indicate publicly/externally accessible
// a getter is automatically created, but NOT a setter
// All addresses can be sent ether
owner.send(SOME_BALANCE); // returns false on failure
owner.balance; // the balance of the owner
if (owner.send) {} // typically wrap in 'if', as contract addresses have
// functions have executed on send and can fail
// Bytes are provided from 1 to 32
// can override send by defining your own
// Can check balance
owner.balance; // the balance of the owner (user or contract)
// Bytes available from 1 to 32
byte a; // byte is same as bytes1
bytes32 b;
bytes2 b;
bytes32 c;
// Dynamically sized bytes
bytes m; // A special array, same as byte[] array (but packed tightly)
// More expensive than byte1-byte32, so use those when possible
// Dynamically sized
bytes m; // A special array, same as byte[] (but packed tightly)
// same as bytes, but does not allow length or index access (for now)
string n = 'hello';
string n = "hello"; // stored in UTF8, note double quotes, not single
// string utility functions to be added in future
// prefer bytes32/bytes, as UTF8 uses more storage
// Type inference
// Type inferrence
// var does inferred typing based on first assignment,
// can't be used in functions parameters
var a = true;
// there are edge cases where inference leads to a value being set (e.g., an uint 8)
// that is different from what the user wanted (uint16), so use carefully
// use carefully, inference may provide wrong type
// e.g., an int8, when a counter needs to be int16
// var can be used to assign function to variable
function a(uint x) returns (uint) {
return x * 2;
}
var f = a;
f(22); // call
// by default, all values are set to 0 on instantiation
// Delete can be called on most types
// (it does NOT destroy the value, but rather sets the value to 0 by assignment)
// (does NOT destroy value, but sets value to 0, the initial value)
uint x = 5;
delete x; // x is now 0
// Destructuring/Tuples
(x, y) = (2, 7); // assign/swap multiple value
// 2. DATA STRUCTURES
@ -142,74 +202,97 @@ bytes32[] names; // dynamic array
uint newLength = names.push("John"); // adding returns new length of the array
// Length
names.length; // get length
names.length = 1; // lengths can also be set, unlike many other languages
names.length = 1; // lengths can be set (for dynamic arrays in storage only)
// multidimensional array
uint x[][5]; // arr with 5 dynamic array elements (opp order of most languages)
// Dictionaries (any type to any other type)
mapping (string => uint) public balances;
balances["john"] = 1;
console.log(balances[jill]); // is 0, all non-set key values return zeroes
// The 'public' lets you do the following from another contract
contractName.balances("john"); // returns 1
// The 'public' keyword here created a getter (but not setter) that behaves like the following:
balances["charles"] = 1;
console.log(balances["ada"]); // is 0, all non-set key values return zeroes
// 'public' allows following from another contract
contractName.balances("claude"); // returns 1
// 'public' created a getter (but not setter) like the following:
function balances(address _account) returns (uint balance) {
return balances[_account];
return balances[_account];
}
// Nested mappings
mapping (address => mapping (address => uint) balances) public custodians;
// To delete
delete balances["John"];
delete balances; // deletes all elements
delete balances; // sets all elements to 0
// Unlike languages like Javascript, you cannot iterate through all elements in
// a map, without knowing the source keys
// Unlike other languages, CANNOT iterate through all elements in
// mapping, without knowing source keys - can build data structure
// on top to do this
// Structs and enums
struct Bank { // note the capital
address owner;
uint balance;
}
struct Bank {
address owner;
uint balance;
}
Bank b = Bank({
owner: msg.sender,
balance: 5
owner: msg.sender,
balance: 5
});
delete b; // set all variables in struct to 0, except any mappings
// or
Bank c = Bank(msg.sender, 5);
c.amount = 5; // set to new value
delete b;
// sets to initial value, set all variables in struct to 0, except mappings
// Enums
enum State { Created, Locked, Inactive };
enum State { Created, Locked, Inactive }; // often used for state machine
State public state; // Declare variable from enum
state = State.Created;
// enums can be explicitly converted to ints
uint createdState = uint(State.Created); // 0
// Data locations: Memory vs. storage - all complex types (arrays, structs) have a data location
// Data locations: Memory vs. storage vs. stack - all complex types (arrays,
// structs) have a data location
// 'memory' does not persist, 'storage' does
// Default is 'storage' for local and state variables; 'memory' for function parameters
// Default is 'storage' for local and state variables; 'memory' for func params
// stack holds small local variables
// for most types, can explicitly set which data location to use
// 3. Variables of note
// 3. Simple operators
// Comparisons, bit operators and arithmetic operators are provided
// exponentiation: **
// exclusive or: ^
// bitwise negation: ~
// 4. Global Variables of note
// ** this **
this; // the address of the current contract
// 'balance' often used at the end of a contracts life to send the
// remaining balance to a party
this; // address of contract
// often used at end of contract life to send remaining balance to party
this.balance;
this.someFunction(); // calls a function externally (via a message call, not via an internal jump)
this.someFunction(); // calls func externally via call, not via internal jump
// ** msg - The current message received by the contract ** **
msg.sender; // address, The address of the sender
msg.value; // uint, The amount of gas provided to this contract in wei
// ** msg - Current message received by the contract ** **
msg.sender; // address of sender
msg.value; // amount of gas provided to this contract in wei
msg.data; // bytes, complete call data
msg.gas; // remaining gas
// ** tx - This transaction **
tx.origin; // address, sender of the transaction
tx.gasprice; // uint, gas price of the transaction
tx.origin; // address of sender of the transaction
tx.gasprice; // gas price of the transaction
// ** block - Information about the current block **
now // uint, current time, alias for block.timestamp
block.number; // uint, current block number
block.difficulty; // uint, current block difficulty
block.blockhash(1); // returns bytes32, only provides for most recent 256 blocks
// ** block - Information about current block **
now // current time (approximately), alias for block.timestamp (uses Unix time)
block.number; // current block number
block.difficulty; // current block difficulty
block.blockhash(1); // returns bytes32, only works for most recent 256 blocks
block.gasLimit();
// ** storage - A persistent storage hash (does not need to be declared) **
// ** storage - Persistent storage hash **
storage['abc'] = 'def'; // maps 256 bit words to 256 bit words
@ -217,55 +300,61 @@ storage['abc'] = 'def'; // maps 256 bit words to 256 bit words
// A. Functions
// Simple function
function increment(uint x) returns (uint) {
x += 1;
return x;
x += 1;
return x;
}
// Functions can return many arguments, and by specifying the returned arguments
// you don't need to explicitly return
// Functions can return many arguments, and by specifying returned arguments
// name don't need to explicitly return
function increment(uint x, uint y) returns (uint x, uint y) {
x += 1;
y += 1;
x += 1;
y += 1;
}
// This function would have been called like this, and assigned to a tuple
// Call previous functon
uint (a,b) = increment(1,1);
// The 'constant' indicates and ensures that a function does not/cannot change the persistent variables
// Constant function execute locally, not on the blockchain
// 'constant' indicates that function does not/cannot change persistent vars
// Constant function execute locally, not on blockchain
uint y;
function increment(uint x) constant returns (uint x) {
x += 1;
y += 1; // this line would fail
// as y is a state variable, and can't be changed in a constant function
x += 1;
y += 1; // this line would fail
// y is a state variable, and can't be changed in a constant function
}
// There are a few 'function visibility specifiers' that can be placed where 'constant'
// is, which include:
// internal (can only be called by an internal function, not one external to the contract)
// public - visible externally and internally
// 'Function Visibility specifiers'
// These can be placed where 'constant' is, including:
// public - visible externally and internally (default)
// external
// private - only visible in the current contract
// internal - only visible in current contract, and those deriving from it
// Functions are hoisted (so you can call a function, even if it is declared later) - and you can assign a function to a variable
// Functions hoisted - and can assign a function to a variable
function a() {
var z = b;
b();
var z = b;
b();
}
function b() {
}
// Prefer loops to recursion (max call stack depth is 1024)
// B. Events
// Events are an easy way to notify external listeners that something changed
// You typically declare them after your contract parameters
event Sent(address from, address to, uint amount);
// Events are notify external parties; easy to search and
// access events from outside blockchain (with lightweight clients)
// typically declare after contract parameters
// You then call it in a function, when you want to trigger it
sent(from, to, amount);
// Declare
event Sent(address from, address to, uint amount); // note capital first letter
// For an external party (a contract or external entity), to watch
// for an event, you write the following:
// Call
Sent(from, to, amount);
// For an external party (a contract or external entity), to watch:
Coin.Sent().watch({}, '', function(error, result) {
if (!error) {
console.log("Coin transfer: " + result.args.amount +
@ -276,195 +365,356 @@ Coin.Sent().watch({}, '', function(error, result) {
"Receiver: " + Coin.balances.call(result.args.to));
}
}
// This is a common paradigm for one contract to depend on another (e.g., a
// contract that depends on the current exchange rate provided by another
// contract)
// Common paradigm for one contract to depend on another (e.g., a
// contract that depends on current exchange rate provided by another)
// C. Modifiers
// Modifiers let you validate inputs to functions such as a minimal balance or user authentication
// It's similar to a guard clause in other languages
// Modifiers validate inputs to functions such as minimal balance or user auth;
// similar to guard clause in other languages
// The '_' (underscore) must be included as the last line in the function body, and is an indicator that the
// '_' (underscore) often included as last line in body, and indicates
// function being called should be placed there
modifier onlyAfter(uint _time) { if (now <= _time) throw; _ }
modifier onlyOwner { if (msg.sender == owner) _ }
// commonly used with state machines
modifier onlyIfState (State currState) { if (currState != State.A) _ }
// You can then append it right after the function declaration
// Append right after function declaration
function changeOwner(newOwner)
onlyAfter(someTime)
onlyOwner()
onlyIfState(State.A)
{
owner = newOwner;
owner = newOwner;
}
// underscore can be included before end of body,
// but explicitly returning will skip, so use carefully
modifier checkValue(uint amount) {
_
if (msg.value > amount) {
msg.sender.send(amount - msg.value);
}
}
// 5. BRANCHING AND LOOPS
// 6. BRANCHING AND LOOPS
// All basic logic blocks work - including if/else, for, while, break, continue, return
// Unlike other languages, the 'switch' statement is NOT provided
// All basic logic blocks work - including if/else, for, while, break, continue
// return - but no switch
// Syntax is the same as javascript, but there is no type conversion from
// non-boolean to boolean, so comparison operators must be used to get the boolean value
// Syntax same as javascript, but no type conversion from non-boolean
// to boolean (comparison operators must be used to get the boolean val)
// 6. OBJECTS/CONTRACTS
// 7. OBJECTS/CONTRACTS
// A. Calling an external contract
// A. Calling external contract
contract infoFeed {
function info() returns (uint ret) { return 42; }
function info() returns (uint ret) { return 42; }
}
contract Consumer {
InfoFeed feed; // create a variable that will point to a contract on the blockchain
InfoFeed feed; // points to contract on blockchain
// Set feed to an existing contract
function setFeed(address addr) {
// Link to the contract by creating on the address
feed = InfoFeed(addr);
}
// Set feed to existing contract instance
function setFeed(address addr) {
// automatically cast, be careful; constructor is not called
feed = InfoFeed(addr);
}
// Set feed based to a new instance of the contract
function createNewFeed() {
feed = new InfoFeed();
}
// Set feed to new instance of contract
function createNewFeed() {
feed = new InfoFeed(); // constructor called
}
function callFeed() {
// T final parentheses call the contract, optionally adding
// custom value or gas numbers
feed.info.value(10).gas(800)();
}
function callFeed() {
// final parentheses call contract, can optionally add
// custom ether value or gas
feed.info.value(10).gas(800)();
}
}
// B. Inheritance
// Order matters, last inherited contract (i.e., 'def') can override parts of the previously
// inherited contracts
contact MyContract is abc, def("a custom argument to def") {
// Order matters, last inherited contract (i.e., 'def') can override parts of
// previously inherited contracts
contract MyContract is abc, def("a custom argument to def") {
// Override function
function z() {
if (msg.sender == owner) {
def.z(); // call overridden function
function z() {
if (msg.sender == owner) {
def.z(); // call overridden function from def
super.z(); // call immediate parent overriden function
}
}
}
}
};
// abstract function
function someAbstractFunction(uint x);
// cannot be compiled, so used in base/abstract contracts
// that are then implemented
// C. Import
import "filename";
import "github.com/ethereum/dapp-bin/library/iterable_mapping.sol";
// Importing is under active development and will change
// Importing cannot currently be done at the command line
// Importing under active development
// Cannot currently be done at command line
// 8. OTHER KEYWORDS
// A. Throwing
// Throwing
throw; // reverts unused money to sender, state is reverted
// Can't currently catch
// Common design pattern is:
if (!addr.send(123)) {
throw;
}
// B. Selfdestruct
// selfdestruct current contract, sending funds to address (often creator)
selfdestruct(SOME_ADDRESS);
// removes storage/code from current/future blocks
// helps thin clients, but previous data persists in blockchain
// Common pattern, lets owner end the contract and receive remaining funds
function remove() {
if(msg.sender == creator) { // Only let the contract creator do this
selfdestruct(creator); // Makes contract inactive, returns funds
}
}
// May want to deactivate contract manually, rather than selfdestruct
// (ether sent to selfdestructed contract is lost)
// 7. CONTRACT DESIGN PATTERNS
// 9. CONTRACT DESIGN NOTES
// A. Obfuscation
// Remember that all variables are publicly viewable on the blockchain, so
// anything that needs some privacy needs to be obfuscated (e.g., hashed)
// Remember all variables are publicly viewable on blockchain, so
// anything that needs privacy needs to be obfuscated (e.g., hashed)
// B. Throwing
// Throwing
throw; // throwing is easily done, and reverts unused money to the sender
// You can't currently catch
// Steps: 1. Commit to something, 2. Reveal commitment
sha3("some_bid_amount", "some secret"); // commit
// A common design pattern is:
if (!addr.send(123)) {
throw;
}
// call contract's reveal function showing bid plus secret that hashes to SHA3
reveal(100, "mySecret");
// C. Suicide
// Suicide
suicide(SOME_ADDRESS); // suicide the current contract, sending funds to the address (often the creator)
// B. Storage optimization
// Writing to blockchain can be expensive, as data stored forever encourages
// smart ways to use memory (eventually, compilation will be better, but for now
// benefits to planning data structures - and storing min amount in blockchain)
// This is a common contract pattern that lets the owner end the contract, and receive remaining funds
function remove() {
if(msg.sender == owner) { // Only let the contract creator do this
suicide(owner); // suicide makes this contract inactive, and returns funds to the owner
}
}
// Cost can often be high for items like multidimensional arrays
// (cost is for storing data - not declaring unfilled variables)
// D. Storage optimization
// Reading and writing can be expensive, as data needs to be stored in the
// blockchain forever - this encourages smart ways to use memory (eventually,
// compilation may better handle this, but for now there are benefits to
// planning your data structures)
// C. Cannot restrict human or computer from reading contents of
// transaction or transaction's state
// When 'private' specified, indicating that other *contracts* can't read
// the data directly - any other party can still read the data in blockchain
// *** EXAMPLE: Let's do a more complex example ***
// D. All data to start of time is stored in blockchain, so
// anyone can observe all previous data and changes
// E. Cron
// Contracts must be manually called to handle time-based scheduling; can create
// external code to do, or provide incentives (ether) for others to do for you
// F. State machines
// see example below for State enum and inState modifier
// *** EXAMPLE: A crowdfunding example (broadly similar to Kickstarter) ***
// ** START EXAMPLE **
// [TODO: Decide what a more complex example looks like, needs a few characteristics:
// - has a 'constant' state variable
// - has a state machine (and uses modifier)
// - sends money to an address
// - gets information from another contract (we'll show code for both contracts)
// - Shows inheritance
// - show variables being passed in on instantiation (and guard code to throw if variables not provided)
// - Shows the swapping out of a contract address
// Ideas:
// - crowdfunding?
// - Peer to peer insurance
// ]
// It's good practice to have a remove function, which disables this
// contract - but does mean that users have to trust the owner
// For a decentralized bank without a trusted part
function remove() {
if(msg.sender == owner) { // Only let the contract creator do this
suicide(owner); // suicide makes this contract inactive, and returns funds to the owner
}
// CrowdFunder.sol
/// @title CrowdFunder
/// @author nemild
contract CrowdFunder {
// Variables set on create by creator
address public creator;
address public fundRecipient; // creator may be different than recipient
uint public minimumToRaise; // required to tip, else everyone gets refund
string campaignUrl;
// Data structures
enum State {
Fundraising,
ExpiredRefundPending,
Successful,
ExpiredRefundComplete
}
struct Contribution {
uint amount;
address contributor;
}
// *** END EXAMPLE ***
// State variables
State public state = State.Fundraising; // initialize on create
uint public totalRaised;
uint public raiseBy;
Contribution[] contributions;
// 7. NATIVE FUNCTIONS
event fundingReceived(address addr, uint amount, uint currentTotal);
event allRefundsSent();
event winnerPaid(address winnerAddress);
modifier inState(State _state) {
if (state != _state) throw;
_
}
modifier isCreator() {
if (msg.sender != creator) throw;
_
}
modifier atEndOfLifecycle() {
if(state != State.ExpiredRefundComplete && state != State.Successful) {
throw;
}
}
function CrowdFunder(
uint timeInHoursForFundraising,
string _campaignUrl,
address _fundRecipient,
uint _minimumToRaise)
{
creator = msg.sender;
fundRecipient = _fundRecipient;
campaignUrl = _campaignUrl;
minimumToRaise = _minimumToRaise;
raiseBy = now + (timeInHoursForFundraising * 1 hours);
}
function contribute()
public
inState(State.Fundraising)
{
contributions.push(
Contribution({
amount: msg.value,
contributor: msg.sender
}) // use array, so can iterate
);
totalRaised += msg.value;
fundingReceived(msg.sender, msg.value, totalRaised);
checkIfFundingCompleteOrExpired();
}
function checkIfFundingCompleteOrExpired() {
if (totalRaised > minimumToRaise) {
state = State.Successful;
payOut();
// could incentivize sender who initiated state change here
} else if ( now > raiseBy ) {
state = State.ExpiredRefundPending;
refundAll();
}
}
function payOut()
public
inState(State.Successful)
{
if(!fundRecipient.send(this.balance)) {
throw;
}
winnerPaid(fundRecipient);
}
function refundAll()
public
inState(State.ExpiredRefundPending)
{
uint length = contributions.length;
for (uint i = 0; i < length; i++) {
if(!contributions[i].contributor.send(contributions[i].amount)) {
throw;
}
}
allRefundsSent();
state = State.ExpiredRefundComplete;
}
function removeContract()
public
isCreator()
atEndOfLifecycle()
{
selfdestruct(msg.sender);
}
function () { throw; }
}
// ** END EXAMPLE **
// 10. OTHER NATIVE FUNCTIONS
// Currency units
// By default, currency is defined using wei, the smallest unit of Ether
// Currency is defined using wei, smallest unit of Ether
uint minAmount = 1 wei;
uint a = 1 finney; // 1 ether = 1000 finney
// There are a number of other units, see: http://ether.fund/tool/converter
uint a = 1 finney; // 1 ether == 1000 finney
// Other units, see: http://ether.fund/tool/converter
// Time units
1 == 1 second
1 minutes == 60 seconds
// You typically multiply a variable times the unit, as these units are not
// directly stored in a variable
// Can multiply a variable times unit, as units are not stored in a variable
uint x = 5;
(x * 1 days); // 5 days
// Be careful about leap seconds and leap years when using equality statements for time (instead, prefer greater than/less than)
// Careful about leap seconds/years with equality statements for time
// (instead, prefer greater than/less than)
// Cryptography
// All strings passed are concatenated before the hash is run
// All strings passed are concatenated before hash action
sha3("ab", "cd");
ripemd160("abc");
sha256("def");
11. LOW LEVEL FUNCTIONS
// call - low level, not often used, does not provide type safety
successBoolean = someContractAddress.call('function_name', 'arg1', 'arg2');
// 8. COMMON MISTAKES/MISCONCEPTIONS
// A few common mistakes and misconceptions:
// callcode - Code at target address executed in *context* of calling contract
// provides library functionality
someContractAddress.callcode('function_name');
// A. You cannot restrict a human or computer from reading the content of
// your transaction or a transaction's state
// 12. STYLE NOTES
// Based on Python's PEP8 style guide
// All data to the start of time is stored in the blockchain, so you and
// anyone can observe all previous data stats
// 4 spaces for indentation
// Two lines separate contract declarations (and other top level declarations)
// Avoid extraneous spaces in parentheses
// Can omit curly braces for one line statement (if, for, etc)
// else should be placed on own line
// When you don't specify public on a variable, you are indicating that other *contracts* can't
// read the data - but any person can still read the data
// 13. NATSPEC comments - used for documentation, commenting, and external UIs
// Contract natspec - always above contract definition
/// @title Contract title
/// @author Author name
// TODO
// Function natspec
/// @notice information about what function does; shown when function to execute
/// @dev Function documentation for developer
// 9. STYLE NOTES
// Use 4 spaces for indentation
// (Python's PEP8 is used as the baseline style guide, including its general philosophy)
// Function parameter/return value natspec
/// @param someParam Some description of what the param does
/// @return Description of the return value
```
## Additional resources
@ -472,6 +722,8 @@ sha256("def");
- [Solidity Style Guide](https://ethereum.github.io/solidity//docs/style-guide/): Ethereum's style guide is heavily derived from Python's [pep8](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/) style guide.
- [Browser-based Solidity Editor](http://chriseth.github.io/browser-solidity/)
- [Gitter Chat room](https://gitter.im/ethereum/go-ethereum)
- [Modular design strategies for Ethereum Contracts](https://docs.erisindustries.com/tutorials/solidity/)
- Editor Snippets ([Ultisnips format](https://gist.github.com/nemild/98343ce6b16b747788bc))
## Sample contracts
- [Dapp Bin](https://github.com/ethereum/dapp-bin)
@ -481,5 +733,12 @@ sha256("def");
## Information purposefully excluded
- Libraries
- [Call keyword](http://solidity.readthedocs.org/en/latest/types.html)
## Style
- Python's [PEP8](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/) is used as the baseline style guide, including its general philosophy)
## Future To Dos
- New keywords: protected, inheritable
Feel free to send a pull request with any edits - or email nemild -/at-/ gmail