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fixes
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@ -50,10 +50,10 @@ not False -- True
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'You cant use single quotes for strings.' -- error!
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'You cant use single quotes for strings.' -- error!
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-- Strings can be added too!
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-- Strings can be added too!
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"Hello " ++ "world!" #=> "Hello world!"
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"Hello " ++ "world!" -- "Hello world!"
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-- A string can be treated like a list of characters
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-- A string can be treated like a list of characters
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"This is a string" !! 0 #=> 'T'
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"This is a string" !! 0 -- 'T'
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----------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------
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@ -75,11 +75,9 @@ not False -- True
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0:[1..5] -- [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
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0:[1..5] -- [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
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-- indexing into a list
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-- indexing into a list
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[0..] !! 5 -- 4
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[0..] !! 5 -- 4
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-- more list operations
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-- more list operations
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head [1..5] -- 1
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head [1..5] -- 1
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tail [1..5] -- [2, 3, 4, 5]
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tail [1..5] -- [2, 3, 4, 5]
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init [1..5] -- [1, 2, 3, 4]
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init [1..5] -- [1, 2, 3, 4]
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@ -89,7 +87,7 @@ last [1..5] -- 5
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[x*2 | x <- [1..5]] -- [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
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[x*2 | x <- [1..5]] -- [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
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-- with a conditional
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-- with a conditional
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[x*2 | x <- [1..5], x*2 > 4] # [6, 8, 10]
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[x*2 | x <- [1..5], x*2 > 4] -- [6, 8, 10]
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-- Every element in a tuple can be a different type, but a tuple has a fixed length.
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-- Every element in a tuple can be a different type, but a tuple has a fixed length.
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-- A tuple:
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-- A tuple:
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@ -112,9 +110,7 @@ add 1 2 -- 3
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1 `add` 2 -- 3
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1 `add` 2 -- 3
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-- You can also define functions that have no characters! This lets you define
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-- You can also define functions that have no characters! This lets you define
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-- your own operators:
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-- your own operators! Here's an operator that does integer division
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-- Here's an operator that does integer division
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(//) a b = a `div` b
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(//) a b = a `div` b
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35 // 4 -- 8
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35 // 4 -- 8
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@ -123,20 +119,19 @@ fib x
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| x < 2 = x
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| x < 2 = x
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| otherwise = fib (x - 1) + fib (x - 2)
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| otherwise = fib (x - 1) + fib (x - 2)
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-- You can do the same thing with pattern matching.
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-- Pattern matching is similar. Here we have given three different
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-- definitions for fib. Haskell will automatically call the first
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-- function that matches the pattern of the value.
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fib 1 = 1
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fib 1 = 1
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fib 2 = 2
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fib 2 = 2
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fib x = fib (x - 1) + fib (x - 2)
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fib x = fib (x - 1) + fib (x - 2)
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-- So we have given three different definitions for fib.
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-- Haskell will automatically call the first function that matches
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-- the pattern of the value.
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-- Pattern matching on tuples:
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-- Pattern matching on tuples:
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foo (x, y) = (x + 1, y + 2)
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foo (x, y) = (x + 1, y + 2)
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-- Pattern matching on arrays. Here `x` is the first element
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-- Pattern matching on arrays. Here `x` is the first element
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-- in the array, and `xs` is the rest of the array:
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-- in the array, and `xs` is the rest of the array. We can write
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-- our own map function:
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map func [x] = [func x]
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map func [x] = [func x]
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map func (x:xs) = func x:(map func xs)
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map func (x:xs) = func x:(map func xs)
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@ -149,12 +144,12 @@ map (\x -> x + 2) [1..5] -- [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
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foldl1 (\acc x -> acc + x) [1..5] -- 15
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foldl1 (\acc x -> acc + x) [1..5] -- 15
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----------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------
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-- 4. Some fancy things you can do with functions
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-- 4. More functions
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----------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------
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-- currying: if you don't pass in all the arguments to a function,
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-- currying: if you don't pass in all the arguments to a function,
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it gets "curried". That means it returns a function that takes the
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-- it gets "curried". That means it returns a function that takes the
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rest of the arguments.
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-- rest of the arguments.
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add a b = a + b
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add a b = a + b
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foo = add 10 -- foo is now a function that takes a number and adds 10 to it
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foo = add 10 -- foo is now a function that takes a number and adds 10 to it
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@ -165,10 +160,9 @@ foo = (+10)
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foo 5 -- 15
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foo 5 -- 15
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-- function composition
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-- function composition
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the (.) function chains functions together.
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-- the (.) function chains functions together.
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For example, here foo is a function that takes a value. It adds 10 to it,
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-- For example, here foo is a function that takes a value. It adds 10 to it,
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multiplies the result of that by 5, and then returns the final value.
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-- multiplies the result of that by 5, and then returns the final value.
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foo = (*5) . (+10)
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foo = (*5) . (+10)
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-- (5 + 10) * 5 = 75
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-- (5 + 10) * 5 = 75
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@ -176,9 +170,9 @@ foo 5 -- 75
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-- fixing precedence
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-- fixing precedence
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-- Haskell has another function called `$`. This changes the precedence
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-- Haskell has another function called `$`. This changes the precedence
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so that everything to the left of it gets computed first and then applied
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-- so that everything to the left of it gets computed first and then applied
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to everything on the right. You can use `.` and `$` to get rid of a lot
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-- to everything on the right. You can use `.` and `$` to get rid of a lot
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of parentheses:
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-- of parentheses:
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-- before
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-- before
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(even (double 7)) -- true
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(even (double 7)) -- true
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@ -190,18 +184,18 @@ even . double $ 7 -- true
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-- 5. Type signatures
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-- 5. Type signatures
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----------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------
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Haskell has a very strong type system, and everything has a type signature.
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-- Haskell has a very strong type system, and everything has a type signature.
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Some basic types:
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-- Some basic types:
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5 :: Integer
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5 :: Integer
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"hello" :: String
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"hello" :: String
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True :: Bool
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True :: Bool
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Functions have types too.
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-- Functions have types too.
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Not takes a boolean and returns a boolean:
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-- `not` takes a boolean and returns a boolean:
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not :: Bool -> Bool
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not :: Bool -> Bool
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Here's a function that takes two arguments:
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-- Here's a function that takes two arguments:
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add :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer
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add :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer
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----------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------
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@ -216,19 +210,13 @@ haskell = if 1 == 1
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then "awesome"
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then "awesome"
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else "awful"
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else "awful"
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-- case statements
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-- case statements: Here's how you could parse command line arguments in Haskell
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-- Here's how you could parse command line arguments in Haskell
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case args of
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case args of
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"help" -> printHelp
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"help" -> printHelp
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"start" -> startProgram
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"start" -> startProgram
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_ -> putStrLn "bad args"
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_ -> putStrLn "bad args"
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-- loops: recursion
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-- Haskell doesn't have loops because it uses recursion instead.
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-- Haskell doesn't have loops because it uses recursion instead.
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-- map a function over every element in an array
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-- map a function over every element in an array
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map (*2) [1..5] -- [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
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map (*2) [1..5] -- [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
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@ -237,8 +225,10 @@ map (*2) [1..5] -- [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
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for array func = map func array
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for array func = map func array
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-- and then use it
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-- and then use it
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for [0..5] $ \i -> show i
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for [0..5] $ \i -> print i
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-- we could've written that like this too:
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for [0..5] show
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----------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------
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-- 7. Data Types
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-- 7. Data Types
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@ -248,7 +238,7 @@ for [0..5] $ \i -> print i
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data Color = Red | Blue | Green
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data Color = Red | Blue | Green
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Now you can use it in a function:
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-- Now you can use it in a function:
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say :: Color -> IO String
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say :: Color -> IO String
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say Red = putStrLn "You are Red!"
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say Red = putStrLn "You are Red!"
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@ -288,3 +278,5 @@ qsort (p:xs) = qsort lesser ++ [p] ++ qsort greater
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where lesser = filter (< p) xs
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where lesser = filter (< p) xs
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greater = filter (>= p) xs
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greater = filter (>= p) xs
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```
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```
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Haskell is easy to install. Get it [here](http://www.haskell.org/platform/).
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