--- name: Erlang contributors: - ["Giovanni Cappellotto", "http://giovanni.curlybrackets.it/"] filename: learnerlang.erl --- ```erlang % Percent sign starts a one-line comment. %% Two percent characters shall be used to comment functions. %%% Three percent characters shall be used to comment modules. % We use three types of punctuation in Erlang. % Commas (`,`) separate arguments in function calls, data constructors, and % patterns. % Periods (`.`) (followed by whitespace) separate entire functions and % expressions in the shell. % Semicolons (`;`) separate clauses. We find clauses in several contexts: % function definitions and in `case`, `if`, `try..catch`, and `receive` % expressions. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %% 1. Variables and pattern matching. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% % In Erlang new variables are bound with an `=` statement. Num = 42. % All variable names must start with an uppercase letter. % Erlang has single-assignment variables; if you try to assign a different % value to the variable `Num`, you’ll get an error. Num = 43. % ** exception error: no match of right hand side value 43 % In most languages, `=` denotes an assignment statement. In Erlang, however, % `=` denotes a pattern-matching operation. When an empty variable is used on the % left hand side of the `=` operator to is bound (assigned), but when a bound % variable is used on the left hand side the following behaviour is observed. % `Lhs = Rhs` really means this: evaluate the right side (`Rhs`), and then % match the result against the pattern on the left side (`Lhs`). Num = 7 * 6. % Floating-point number. Pi = 3.14159. % Atoms are used to represent different non-numerical constant values. Atoms % start with lowercase letters, followed by a sequence of alphanumeric % characters or the underscore (`_`) or at (`@`) sign. Hello = hello. OtherNode = example@node. % Atoms with non alphanumeric values can be written by enclosing the atoms % with apostrophes. AtomWithSpace = 'some atom with space'. % Tuples are similar to structs in C. Point = {point, 10, 45}. % If we want to extract some values from a tuple, we use the pattern-matching % operator `=`. {point, X, Y} = Point. % X = 10, Y = 45 % We can use `_` as a placeholder for variables that we’re not interested in. % The symbol `_` is called an anonymous variable. Unlike regular variables, % several occurrences of `_` in the same pattern don’t have to bind to the % same value. Person = {person, {name, {first, joe}, {last, armstrong}}, {footsize, 42}}. {_, {_, {_, Who}, _}, _} = Person. % Who = joe % We create a list by enclosing the list elements in square brackets and % separating them with commas. % The individual elements of a list can be of any type. % The first element of a list is the head of the list. If you imagine removing % the head from the list, what’s left is called the tail of the list. ThingsToBuy = [{apples, 10}, {pears, 6}, {milk, 3}]. % If `T` is a list, then `[H|T]` is also a list, with head `H` and tail `T`. % The vertical bar (`|`) separates the head of a list from its tail. % `[]` is the empty list. % We can extract elements from a list with a pattern-matching operation. If we % have a nonempty list `L`, then the expression `[X|Y] = L`, where `X` and `Y` % are unbound variables, will extract the head of the list into `X` and the tail % of the list into `Y`. [FirstThing|OtherThingsToBuy] = ThingsToBuy. % FirstThing = {apples, 10} % OtherThingsToBuy = [{pears, 6}, {milk, 3}] % There are no strings in Erlang. Strings are really just lists of integers. % Strings are enclosed in double quotation marks (`"`). Name = "Hello". [72, 101, 108, 108, 111] = "Hello". %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %% 2. Sequential programming. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% % Modules are the basic unit of code in Erlang. All the functions we write are % stored in modules. Modules are stored in files with `.erl` extensions. % Modules must be compiled before the code can be run. A compiled module has the % extension `.beam`. -module(geometry). -export([area/1]). % the list of functions exported from the module. % The function `area` consists of two clauses. The clauses are separated by a % semicolon, and the final clause is terminated by dot-whitespace. % Each clause has a head and a body; the head consists of a function name % followed by a pattern (in parentheses), and the body consists of a sequence of % expressions, which are evaluated if the pattern in the head is successfully % matched against the calling arguments. The patterns are matched in the order % they appear in the function definition. area({rectangle, Width, Ht}) -> Width * Ht; area({circle, R}) -> 3.14159 * R * R. % Compile the code in the file geometry.erl. c(geometry). % {ok,geometry} % We need to include the module name together with the function name in order to % identify exactly which function we want to call. geometry:area({rectangle, 10, 5}). % 50 geometry:area({circle, 1.4}). % 6.15752 % In Erlang, two functions with the same name and different arity (number of % arguments) in the same module represent entirely different functions. -module(lib_misc). -export([sum/1]). % export function `sum` of arity 1 % accepting one argument: list of integers. sum(L) -> sum(L, 0). sum([], N) -> N; sum([H|T], N) -> sum(T, H+N). % Funs are "anonymous" functions. They are called this way because they have % no name. However, they can be assigned to variables. Double = fun(X) -> 2 * X end. % `Double` points to an anonymous function % with handle: #Fun Double(2). % 4 % Functions accept funs as their arguments and can return funs. Mult = fun(Times) -> ( fun(X) -> X * Times end ) end. Triple = Mult(3). Triple(5). % 15 % List comprehensions are expressions that create lists without having to use % funs, maps, or filters. % The notation `[F(X) || X <- L]` means "the list of `F(X)` where `X` is taken % from the list `L`." L = [1,2,3,4,5]. [2 * X || X <- L]. % [2,4,6,8,10] % A list comprehension can have generators and filters, which select subset of % the generated values. EvenNumbers = [N || N <- [1, 2, 3, 4], N rem 2 == 0]. % [2, 4] % Guards are constructs that we can use to increase the power of pattern % matching. Using guards, we can perform simple tests and comparisons on the % variables in a pattern. % You can use guards in the heads of function definitions where they are % introduced by the `when` keyword, or you can use them at any place in the % language where an expression is allowed. max(X, Y) when X > Y -> X; max(X, Y) -> Y. % A guard is a series of guard expressions, separated by commas (`,`). % The guard `GuardExpr1, GuardExpr2, ..., GuardExprN` is true if all the guard % expressions `GuardExpr1`, `GuardExpr2`, ..., `GuardExprN` evaluate to `true`. is_cat(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= cat -> true; is_cat(A) -> false. is_dog(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= dog -> true; is_dog(A) -> false. % We won't dwell on the `=:=` operator here; just be aware that it is used to % check whether two Erlang expressions have the same value *and* the same type. % Contrast this behaviour to that of the `==` operator: 1 + 2 =:= 3. % true 1 + 2 =:= 3.0. % false 1 + 2 == 3.0. % true % A guard sequence is either a single guard or a series of guards, separated % by semicolons (`;`). The guard sequence `G1; G2; ...; Gn` is true if at % least one of the guards `G1`, `G2`, ..., `Gn` evaluates to `true`. is_pet(A) when is_atom(A), (A =:= dog);(A =:= cat) -> true; is_pet(A) -> false. % Warning: not all valid Erlang expressions can be used as guard expressions; % in particular, our `is_cat` and `is_dog` functions cannot be used within the % guard sequence in `is_pet`'s definition. For a description of the % expressions allowed in guard sequences, refer to the specific section % in the Erlang reference manual: % http://erlang.org/doc/reference_manual/expressions.html#guards % Records provide a method for associating a name with a particular element in a % tuple. % Record definitions can be included in Erlang source code files or put in files % with the extension `.hrl`, which are then included by Erlang source code % files. -record(todo, { status = reminder, % Default value who = joe, text }). % We have to read the record definitions into the shell before we can define a % record. We use the shell function `rr` (short for read records) to do this. rr("records.hrl"). % [todo] % Creating and updating records: X = #todo{}. % #todo{status = reminder, who = joe, text = undefined} X1 = #todo{status = urgent, text = "Fix errata in book"}. % #todo{status = urgent, who = joe, text = "Fix errata in book"} X2 = X1#todo{status = done}. % #todo{status = done, who = joe, text = "Fix errata in book"} % `case` expressions. % `filter` returns a list of all elements `X` in a list `L` for which `P(X)` is % true. filter(P, [H|T]) -> case P(H) of true -> [H|filter(P, T)]; false -> filter(P, T) end; filter(P, []) -> []. filter(fun(X) -> X rem 2 == 0 end, [1, 2, 3, 4]). % [2, 4] % `if` expressions. max(X, Y) -> if X > Y -> X; X < Y -> Y; true -> nil end. % Warning: at least one of the guards in the `if` expression must evaluate to % `true`; otherwise, an exception will be raised. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %% 3. Exceptions. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% % Exceptions are raised by the system when internal errors are encountered or % explicitly in code by calling `throw(Exception)`, `exit(Exception)`, or % `erlang:error(Exception)`. generate_exception(1) -> a; generate_exception(2) -> throw(a); generate_exception(3) -> exit(a); generate_exception(4) -> {'EXIT', a}; generate_exception(5) -> erlang:error(a). % Erlang has two methods of catching an exception. One is to enclose the call to % the function that raises the exception within a `try...catch` expression. catcher(N) -> try generate_exception(N) of Val -> {N, normal, Val} catch throw:X -> {N, caught, thrown, X}; exit:X -> {N, caught, exited, X}; error:X -> {N, caught, error, X} end. % The other is to enclose the call in a `catch` expression. When you catch an % exception, it is converted into a tuple that describes the error. catcher(N) -> catch generate_exception(N). %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %% 4. Concurrency %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% % Erlang relies on the actor model for concurrency. All we need to write % concurrent programs in Erlang are three primitives: spawning processes, % sending messages and receiving messages. % To start a new process, we use the `spawn` function, which takes a function % as argument. F = fun() -> 2 + 2 end. % #Fun spawn(F). % <0.44.0> % `spawn` returns a pid (process identifier); you can use this pid to send % messages to the process. To do message passing, we use the `!` operator. % For all of this to be useful, we need to be able to receive messages. This is % achieved with the `receive` mechanism: -module(calculateGeometry). -compile(export_all). calculateArea() -> receive {rectangle, W, H} -> W * H; {circle, R} -> 3.14 * R * R; _ -> io:format("We can only calculate area of rectangles or circles.") end. % Compile the module and create a process that evaluates `calculateArea` in the % shell. c(calculateGeometry). CalculateArea = spawn(calculateGeometry, calculateArea, []). CalculateArea ! {circle, 2}. % 12.56000000000000049738 % The shell is also a process; you can use `self` to get the current pid. self(). % <0.41.0> %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %% 5. Testing with EUnit %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% % Unit tests can be written using EUnits's test generators and assert macros -module(fib). -export([fib/1]). -include_lib("eunit/include/eunit.hrl"). fib(0) -> 1; fib(1) -> 1; fib(N) when N > 1 -> fib(N-1) + fib(N-2). fib_test_() -> [?_assert(fib(0) =:= 1), ?_assert(fib(1) =:= 1), ?_assert(fib(2) =:= 2), ?_assert(fib(3) =:= 3), ?_assert(fib(4) =:= 5), ?_assert(fib(5) =:= 8), ?_assertException(error, function_clause, fib(-1)), ?_assert(fib(31) =:= 2178309) ]. % EUnit will automatically export to a test() function to allow running the tests % in the erlang shell fib:test() % The popular erlang build tool Rebar is also compatible with EUnit % ``` % rebar eunit % ``` ``` ## References * ["Learn You Some Erlang for great good!"](http://learnyousomeerlang.com/) * ["Programming Erlang: Software for a Concurrent World" by Joe Armstrong](http://pragprog.com/book/jaerlang/programming-erlang) * [Erlang/OTP Reference Documentation](http://www.erlang.org/doc/) * [Erlang - Programming Rules and Conventions](http://www.erlang.se/doc/programming_rules.shtml)